Category: History

The Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology has been excavating the Keeladi archaeological site since 2014. Recent excavations have pushed the Sangam age back even further.

About Keeladi

• Keeladi is a small hamlet in Tamil Nadu’s Sivaganga district
• It is located along the Vaigai River, about 12 kilometres south-east of Madurai’s temple city.
• Excavations from 2015 show that an urban civilisation existed on the banks of the Vaigai River in Tamil Nadu during the Sangam period.

How is Keeladi related to the Sangam age?

• The Sangam period is thought to have lasted from the third century BCE to the third century CE in ancient Tamil Nadu.
• The name is derived from the renowned Madurai Sangam poets of the time.

Recent discoveries

• A TNSDA report published in 2019 dated the unearthed artefacts from Keeladi to the sixth to first centuries BCE.
• Some samples sent to the United States for carbon dating were found to date back to 580 BCE.
• The findings put Keeladi artefacts around 300 years earlier than previously thought, in the third century BCE.

The importance of the findings

• Older than appears: Based on these archaeological findings, the Sangam age has been pushed back to 800 BCE at Keeladi.
• Literary evidences: Keeladi, as well as other Tamil Nadu sites with over a thousand inscribed potsherds, clearly demonstrate the script’s long survival.
• Significant evidence for the Sangam Age: It appears to be an industrious and advanced civilisation, with evidence of urban life and settlements in TN during the Early Historic Period.
• Another significant civilisation: The discovery of Keeladi artefacts has led academics to classify the site as part of the Vaigai Valley Civilisation. It has all the hallmarks of an urban civilisation, including brick structures, luxury items, and evidence of internal and external trade.
• Filling cultural gaps: This could provide critical evidence for understanding the missing links between the Iron Age (12th century BCE to sixth century BCE) and the Early Historic Period (sixth century BCE to fourth century BCE) and subsequent cultural developments.

Connections to the Indus Valley

• The findings have prompted comparisons to the Indus Valley Civilisation, despite the 1,000-year cultural gap between the two places.
• Until now, the gap has been filled by Iron Age material from south India, which serves as a residual link.
• However, some of the symbols discovered in Keeladi pot sherds resemble Indus Valley signs.

What has been discovered thus far?

• Pottery: The discovery of heaps of pottery suggests the existence of a pottery manufacturing industry, most of which is made from locally available raw materials.
• Inscriptions: More than 120 potsherds with Tamil Brahmi inscriptions have been discovered.
• Jewellery: A dyeing industry and a glass bead industry also existed. Gold ornaments, copper articles, semi-precious stones, shell bangles, ivory bangles, and ivory combs reflect the Keeladi people’s artistic, culturally rich, and prosperous lifestyle.
• Semiprecious stone import: Agate and carnelian beads indicate commercial import, while terracotta and ivory dice, gamesmen, and evidence of hopscotch have been discovered, revealing their pastime hobbies.

The excavation has recently become politicised.

• Since its discovery, the Keeladi site has been embroiled in controversies involving several Dravidian and Left ideologues.
• They argue that the archaeological discoveries prove the Indus Valley Civilisation was a “Dravidian” culture and an independent “secular” Tamil civilisation.
• The attempt to define the finds in narrow and racial terms is ideologically motivated in two ways: one, to incite Tamil exclusivism, and two, to challenge the view that sees India as one—unity in diversity.

Source: https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/tamil-nadu/explained-the-significance-of-the-findings-in-keeladi/article66541961.ece

Dr. BR Ambedkar served as India’s first Law Minister following independence. Official records no longer contain his resignation letter.

Dr. Ambedkar as Minister of Law

• Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was the first law minister of independent India.
• He was an Indian jurist, economist, politician, and social reformer who received the Bharat Ratna posthumously in 1990.
• Sardar Patel and Mahatma Gandhi are said to have proposed Dr. Ambedkar’s name for the position of Law Minister in the Nehru Cabinet.

Why was he selected for the post?

• Being the father of our Constitution: Dr. Ambedkar’s intellectual abilities and contributions to the drafting of India’s Constitution were highly regarded by Sardar Patel, then deputy Prime Minister.
• Dr. Ambedkar’s role in the Dalit movement and his fight against caste discrimination also helped to establish him as a significant political figure.
• Marginalized community representation: His appointment as Law Minister was viewed as a symbol of inclusivity and representation of marginalised communities in government.

Why did Dr. Ambedkar resign?

• He resigned as Law Minister due to disagreements with then-Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru over the Hindu Code Bill. He was only interested in reforming Hindu personal laws, not all personal laws in India.
• The bill aimed to reform Hindu personal laws related to marriage, divorce, and inheritance, but Dr. Ambedkar felt it did not go far enough in granting women’s rights and desired more radical changes.
• Injustice against women: Ambedkar proposed a broader set of reforms that would have given women greater rights in areas such as property ownership and inheritance, but his proposals were met with opposition from Nehru and other government members.

Attempts to find his resignation letter

• The letter was not discovered in India’s National Archives or the Ministry of Home Affairs.
• The Maharashtra government was unable to locate the letter in its archives as well.
• Requests for RTI (Right to Information) were also denied.

Significance of his letter

• The missing letter is a source of concern because it is a significant historical document.
• Ambedkar’s resignation was a watershed moment in Indian political history, and the reasons for it remain relevant today.
• The letter may shed light on the differences between Dr. Ambedkar and later mainstream politicians.

Source: https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/indias-first-law-minister-dr-ambedkars-resignation-letter-missing-from-records/article66500901.ece

The Treaty of Alinagar, signed on February 9, 1757, between the Nawab of Bengal and the East India Company, effectively ended British colonial expansion in India.

About

• The Treaty of Alinagar was signed on February 9, 1757, by Robert Clive of the East India Company and Mirza Muhammad Siraj Ud Daula, then Nawab of Bengal.
• It is said to have been one of the major events preceding the Battle of Plassey later that year.
• Plassey was the site of the English’s decisive victory over the nawab. It paved the way for the takeover of Bengal by the East India Company.
• The name Alinagar was a passing reference to modern-day Kolkata, and the treaty was negotiated after the nawab was confronted by both British and Afghan forces.
• He made a deal with the former, but the truce was short-lived.

A Brief History of the British Invasion of India

• Following the Anglo-Mughal War, which lasted from 1686 to 1690, the British began to consolidate their presence in the subcontinent.
• By the beginning of the 18th century, it had established Fort St. George in what was then Madras, Fort William in what was then Calcutta, and Bombay Castle.
• The British initially assisted local princes and nawabs in quelling uprisings or revolts, in exchange for concessions.

The Treaty’s Path

• With over 700 men, the British attacked the town of Hooghly, near Calcutta, in January 1757.
• The Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-daulah, who had only taken power a year before in his early twenties, mobilised forces.
• His troops would defeat the British and arrive in Calcutta on January 10, 1757, despite losing over 600 men.
• However, the nawab’s confidence had been shaken as a result of the war’s losses.
• On February 9, 1757, he signed the Treaty of Alinagar with Robert Clive, who became the first British Governor of the Bengal Presidency.
• Siraj-ud-daulah agreed to the restoration of the company’s factories and permitted Calcutta’s fortification.

Following the battle

• The British moved on to seize the remaining French territories in Bengal, laying siege to Chandannagar.
• The nawab, on the other hand, was not pleased.
• Daulah, on the other hand, was wary of Afghan forces led by Ahmad Shah Durrani and the Marathas.
• Traders in his kingdom were already wary of him, and there was a plot hatched by his military commander, Mir Jafar.
• On June 23, 1757, events would culminate in the Battle of Plassey.
• It resulted in the East India Company gaining control of Bengal and was a significant event in the subcontinent’s rise to power.

Source: https://www.britannica.com/event/Treaty-of-Alinagar

• A fictionalised account of the Vijayanagara Kingdom has been published by a British author. He based his accounts on the poet Pampa Kampana, who witnessed many of Vijayanagara’s victories and defeats. The Vijayanagara Empire
• The Vijayanagara kingdom has long piqued historians’ and politicians’ interest.
• The kings of Vijayanagara ruled over a territory of more than 360,000 square kilometres from their capital, now known as Hampi on the banks of the Tungabhadra River.
• The kingdom of Vijayanagara, founded in 1336, lasted for more than three centuries, enduring multiple political stresses and making significant advances in art and economy.
• It was one of the subcontinent’s most powerful kingdoms.

Its framework

• The kingdom experienced many ups and downs during its existence, which lasted from 1336 to 1646.
• Vijayanagara, founded by Harihara I of the Sangama dynasty, grew from a strategic position on the banks of the Tungabhadra River.
• It had grown into a formidable force by the 15th century.

Rise of Krishna Deva Raya I

• Krishna Deva Raya led the kingdom to its pinnacle (reign 1509-1529).
• It was a time when Vijayanagara enjoyed military superiority over rival kingdoms such as the Bahmani Sultanate, the Golconda Sultanate, and the Odisha Gajapatis.
• At its height, the kingdom extended from Goa on the Konkan coast to parts of southern Odisha in the east and all the way to the subcontinent’s southernmost tip in the south.

Why is the history of Vijayanagara so revered?

• Monetized economy: Coins were minted by the state as well as by merchant guilds using gold, silver, copper and brass, and their value depended on material weight.
• Pepper, ginger, cinnamon, cardamom, myrobalan, tamarind timber, anafistula, precious and semi-precious stones, pearls, musk, ambergris, rhubarb, aloe, cotton cloth, and porcelain were the Empire’s main exports.
• Maritime trade: While the kingdom’s economy was primarily based on agriculture, trade thrived in its many ports on either coast. Abd al-Razzaq Samarqandi, a traveller, described how the ports of Mangalore, Honavar, Bhatkal, Barkur, Cochin, Cannanore, Machilipatnam, and Dharmadam welcomed traders from Africa, Arabia, Aden, the Red Sea, China, and Bengal, as well as serving as shipbuilding centres.

Vijayanagara’s contributions to culture and architecture

(1) Literary development

• The Vijayanagar Empire was also well-known for its vibrant culture and literature.
• Many poets and scholars wrote in both Sanskrit and Kannada at the court.
• The Amuktamalyada and the Jambavati Kalyanam were written by the emperor Krishnadevaraya, who was also a poet.
• The Vijayanagar Empire also supported the arts, which resulted in a boom in music, dance, and painting.

(2) Architectural development

• Today, the capital of Vijayanagara, Hampi, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site known for its sophisticated fortifications as well as numerous temples and other architectural marvels.
• According to foreign travel accounts, by the early 16th century, Hampi-Vijayanagara was probably the world’s second largest urban settlement (after Beijing) and one of the most prosperous.
• The iconic Vitthala temple complex in Hampi was the most impressive architectural feat of the Vijayanagar Empire.
• A temple dedicated to the god Vitthala, a large audience hall, and a stone chariot shrine comprise this complex.
• Bukka I’s Prasanna Virupaksha temple and Krishna Deva Raya’s Hazara Rama temple are both striking examples of Vijayanagara’s distinctive style and intricate artistry.

Causes of its decline

• Military defeats: The Vijayanagara Empire suffered its first major defeat at the Battle of Talikota in 1565, when it was defeated by a coalition of Muslim sultanates. This major defeat severely weakened the Vijayanagara Empire, ushering in a period of political unrest and civil war.
• Economic disruption: The Deccan Sultanates’ policy of destroying Vijayanagara’s economy and trade networks exacerbated this. As a result, the empire’s political power was diminished, as was its ability to defend itself against future attacks.
• Internal conflict: Other factors that contributed to the conflict included internal divisions among ruling families and the rise of local governors who declared their independence.

Various Vijayanagara kingdom travel details

• Vasco da Gama (Vasco da Gama): The first European traveller to encounter the Vijayanagara Empire was the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama, who visited the kingdom in 1498 and was the first to recognise its wealth and power.
• Conti, Nicolo: The Italian traveller Nicolo Conti visited the kingdom in 1420 and documented his journey in a book titled “Viaggio in India”. He wrote about the splendour of the cities and the kingdom’s wealth.
• Van Linschoten, Jan Huyghen: Jan Huyghen van Linschoten, a Dutch traveller, visited the kingdom in 1583 and wrote a book titled “Itinerario” about his journey. He wrote about the magnificent forts, magnificent temples, thriving markets, and grand palaces.
• Jean-Baptiste Tavernier: In 1665, the French traveller Jean-Baptiste Tavernier visited the kingdom and published “Les Six Voyages de Jean-Baptiste Tavernier,” a book about his journey. He wrote about the fine architecture, the grandeur of the palaces, and the kingdom’s wealth and prosperity.
• Robert Orme: In 1770, the English traveller Robert Orme visited the kingdom and wrote a book titled “Military Transactions in India” about his experience. He wrote about the empire’s size and scope, the splendour of its cities, and the kingdom’s advanced military technology.

Source: https://www.britannica.com/place/India/The-Vijayanagar-empire-1336-1646

The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has decided to form a special committee to locate and certify 24 “missing” protected monuments.

Why in news?

• In a report issued last month, the PMO stated that there was an urgent need to “rationalise” the list of national monuments.

Sites in the news

• Barakhamba Cemetery temple ruins, Mirzapur (UP) dating to 1000 AD
• Kos Minars – one in Faridabad’s Mujesar and
• Inchla Wali Gumti in the capital

Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) 

• Founded by Alexander Cunningham, known as the “Father of Indian Archaeology,”
• He was James Prinsep’s protege.
• Lord Canning was instrumental in getting the ASI statute passed in 1861.
• It is now a statutory body that operates under the Ancient monuments and archaeological sites and remains act (AMASR Act) of 1958.
• It functions as an extension of the Ministry of Culture.
• ASI has 3678 protected monuments and archaeology sites of national importance, as well as 29 cultural sites on the UNESCO World Heritage List.

Initiatives by ASI

1) Museums

• ASI’s museums are customarily located right next to the sites that their inventories are associated with “so that they may be studied amid their natural surroundings and not lose focus by being transported”.
• A dedicated Museums Branch maintains a total of 44 museums spread across the country.

2) Publications by ASI

• Epigraphia Indica
• Ancient India
• Indian Archaeology: A Review (Annually)

3) Library

• Central Archaeological Library in the National Archives building in Janpath, New Delhi

Source: https://asi.nic.in/en/

• The Rashtrapati Bhavan Gardens, also known as the Mughal Gardens, have been renamed Amrit Udyan.
• The designs for the Mughal Gardens were completed by Amrit Udyan Edwin Lutyens in 1917, but planting was not completed until 1928-1929.
• It covers 15 acres and features both Mughal and English landscaping styles.
• The main garden is divided into squares by two channels that intersect at right angles, creating a Charbagh (a four-cornered garden), a common feature of Mughal landscaping.
• Six lotus-shaped fountains rise to a height of 12 feet at the crossings of these channels.
• The gardens contain nearly 2500 Dahlia varieties and 120 rose varieties.

Why was it previously known as Mughal Gardens?

• The garden is designed in Persian style of landscaping or what we call as “Mughal Gardens”.
• In fact, Edward Lutyens, who designed the Viceroy’s House, now known as Rashtrapati Bhavan, used Mughal architectural details on purpose as part of the British appeasement strategy.
• There are Chajja (dripstone), Chattri (domed kiosk), Jali (pierced screen), and many other Indian architectural features used liberally.
• Mughal canals, terraces, and flowering shrubs blend seamlessly with European flowerbeds, lawns, and private hedges

Mughal Gardening in India- The Charbagh Style

• The Mughals were known to appreciate gardens. In Babur Nama, Babur says that his favourite kind of garden is the Persian charbagh style (literally, four quadrants garden).
• The charbagh structure was designed to represent an earthly utopia – jannat – in which humans coexist in perfect harmony with all elements of nature.
• These gardens, defined by their rectilinear layouts divided into four equal sections, can be found across lands previously ruled by the Mughals.
• The gardens surrounding Humanyun’s Tomb in Delhi and the Nishat Bagh in Srinagar are all built in this style, earning them the title of Mughal Gardens.
• The use of waterways, often to demarcate the various quadrants of the garden, is a distinguishing feature of these gardens.
• Fountains were frequently built to represent the “cycle of life.”

Source: https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/mughal-gardens-gets-a-new-name-amrit-udyan/articleshow/97408859.cms

This article will take you through the history of Pakistan (which is on the verge of extinction) and the facts behind its name.

Pakistan and Jinnah

• Muhammad Ali Jinnah is remembered as Pakistan’s founder, its “Qaid e Azam,” or “Great Leader.”
• He was the leader of a movement that made a flimsy idea of a sovereign Islamic state in British India’s northwestern provinces a reality.
• However, he was not the first to propose Pakistan, nor was he its first champion.

Rehmat Ali: Coining the term ‘Pakistan’

• Choudhary Rehmat Ali, the “Founder of the Pakistan National Movement,” is credited with coining the term Pakistan.
• He published a pamphlet titled “Now or Never: Are we to live or perish forever?” on January 28, 1933.
• He made a strong “appeal on behalf of the thirty million Muslims of PAKISTAN who live in the five Northern Units of India… for recognition of their national status” in it.
• He emphasised the differences between himself and the other inhabitants of India, citing religious, social, and historical grounds.
• According to many historians, this is the origin of the concept of Pakistan, which would become mainstream by the 1940s.

Ali’s appeal

• Rehmat Ali’s appeal was also a criticism of the Nationalism wave.
• During the Third Round Table Conference, he distributed pro-Pakistan pamphlets (1932).
• He advocated for a separate, sovereign entity, fearing that the Muslim minority would be absorbed by the Hindu population under the proposed constitution.
• British India, in his opinion, was not the home of a single nation, but rather the designation of a State established by the British for the first time in history.

His idea of Pakistan

• Pakistan was the name Rehmat Ali gave to the “five Northern Provinces of India” – Punjab (P), North-West Frontier Province or the Afghan Province (A), Kashmir (K), Sindh (S), and Balochistan (tan).
• He’d refer to it as Pakistan.
• He argued that this region, with its “distinct marks of nationality,” would be “reduced to a minority of one in ten,” in a united Indian federation.

Exposition of the “Two Nation Theory”

• Rehmat Ali was a businessman, not a politician. Ali’s dream became a reality in 1947.
• He also did not spend much of the 1930s and 1940s in the subcontinent, when the struggle for Pakistan was taking shape.
• His only contribution to Pakistan is his writings and ideas.
• Unlike Iqbal, who is better known as the philosopher who inspired the creation of Pakistan, Ali’s work was limited to a much smaller audience.
• However, it was crucial in the formation of Pakistan.
• His work contains the most radical exposition of the “Two Nation Theory,” which was later popularised by Jinnah and the Muslim League.

How Jinnah overtook Rehmat Ali?

• After Jinnah fell out with the Congress in 1937, things began to change.
• Rahmat Ali’s articulation of Pakistan found its way into mainstream discourse as the leader’s rhetoric became increasingly separatist.
• The famous Lahore Resolution was passed at the Muslim League’s Lahore session in 1940.
• It advocated for the geographical contiguous units in Muslim-majority areas of India’s “North-Western and Eastern Zones of India” to be grouped together to form Independent States.
• While this resolution did not mention “Pakistan,” Jinnah’s ideas were similar to those of Rahmat Ali.
• Between 1940 and 1943, Jinnah and other Muslim League leaders began using the term “Pakistan” in their speeches and correspondence.

Source: https://www.heritagetimes.in/the-man-who-invented-pakistan-choudhry-rahmat-ali/

• Since 1950, January 26 has marked the anniversary of the adoption of India’s Constitution.
• However, the Constitution was prepared well ahead of the scheduled date and was officially adopted by the Constituent Assembly on November 26, 1949.
• So, why do we celebrate Republic Day on January 26th?
• The answer can be found in the history of the Indian freedom struggle, which has been commemorated on this date since 1930.
• The historic “Poorna Swaraj” declaration was officially promulgated on January 26, 1930, ushering in the final phase of India’s freedom struggle, with the goal of complete independence from British rule.

Republic Day: The context of the 1920s

• The Non-Cooperation Movement came to an abrupt end in February 1922, following the Chauri Chaura incident.
• At the time, Mahatma Gandhi believed that the country was “not yet ready” for his nonviolent protest methods.
• As a result, the 1920s saw no further mobilisation on the scale seen during the Non Cooperation Movement and the anti-Rowlatt Satyagraha.

Precursor to the Poorna Swaraj Demand

• Revolutionaries such as Bhagat Singh and Chandrashekhar Azad rose to prominence in the 1920s.
• The 1920s saw the emergence of a new generation of Congress leaders such as Nehru, Subhash Chandra Bose, Vallabhi Patel, and C Rajagopalachari, laying the groundwork for the future course of India’s freedom struggle.
• Notably, British authorities appointed the Simon Commission – a seven-man, all-European team led by Sir John Simon – to deliberate on political reforms in India in 1927.
• This sparked outrage and discontent across the country.

Nehru Report and its protagonism for Dominion Status

• Protests against the Simon Commission spread across the country for the first time since 1922, with chants of “Simon Go Back” echoing across the country.
• In response, Motilal Nehru established his own commission.
• According to the Nehru Report, India should be granted dominion status within the Empire.
• Dominions were defined as “autonomous communities within the British Empire, equal in status, and in no way subordinate to one another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs” in the Balfour Declaration of 1926.
• Dominions were to be united by a common allegiance to the Crown and be free to associate with the British Commonwealth of Nations.

Internal disagreement within the Congress over Dominion Status

• Crucially, even within Congress, the (Motilal) Nehru Report did not enjoy universal support.
• Young leaders such as Bose and Jawaharlal Nehru wanted India to break all ties with the British Empire.
• They contended that, while India would have some autonomy under dominion status, the British Parliament and Crown would still be able to interfere in Indian affairs.
• Importantly, for both Bose and Nehru, achieving dominion status would entail India becoming a party to colonial exploitation elsewhere in the British Empire, primarily in Africa.
• With a far more radical worldview than their predecessors, Bose and Nehru saw anti-colonialism as a global political issue rather than a local political issue for India.
• However, Gandhi remained strongly in favour of dominion status, arguing that it would be a significant step forward in India’s anti-colonial struggle. His viewpoints would soon shift.

Irwin’s retreat from the Dominion status promise

• Viceroy Irwin vaguely announced in 1929 that India would be granted dominion status in the future.
• The Irwin Declaration, which was warmly received by Indians, was met with a massive backlash in Britain.
• The British people remained pro-Empire, and India was regarded as the Empire’s crown jewel.
• Importantly, as the global economy entered a slump, India was arguably Britain’s most valuable colony, with its vast land, resources, and population vital to the country’s economy.
• As a result of the pressure from his family, Irwin broke his word.

Realizing the bluff

• In a meeting with Gandhi, Jinnah of the Muslim League, and a few other leaders, he stated that he could not guarantee India dominion status anytime soon.
• This would be a watershed moment as Congress became more united on the issue.
• With the British unable to implement even reasonable reforms, Indians supported increasingly “radical” goals, the first of which was a fully independent republic.

Poorna Swaraj Issues Proclamation

• The INC’s Lahore Session met in December 1929.
• The historic “Poorna Swaraj” resolution was passed in the session on December 19.
• On January 26, 1930, the Declaration of Independence was officially promulgated.
• The Congress urged Indians to gather and celebrate “independence” on that day.
• As the country restructured its Independence strategy, Congress party workers hoisted the Indian tricolour across the country and patriotic songs were sung.
• The national movement in India “shifted from the language of charity to the language of justice” with this declaration.

Republic Day in post-Independence India

• Between 1930 and 1947, January 26 was celebrated as “Independence Day” or “Poorna Swaraj Day,” with Indians reaffirming their commitment to sovereignty on that day.
• However, on August 15, 1947, India gained independence from the British, exactly two years after the Japanese surrendered to the Allies to end World War II.
• When leaders had to choose a date to promulgate India’s new constitution, they thought January 26 would be ideal.
• Not only did this date already have nationalist significance, but the Constitution mirrored the “Poorna Swaraj” declaration of two decades prior in many ways.

Source: https://m.timesofindia.com/life-style/events/why-is-the-republic-day-of-india-celebrated-on-january-26/articleshow/97281148.cms#:~:text=The%20Indian%20Constitution%20affirms%20India's%20existence%20as%20an%20independent%20republic.&text=26%20January%20was%20chosen%20as,India's%20independence%20from%20colonial%20rule.