Category: Science & Tech

While studying Omega Centauri, astronomers and scientists at the Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA) discovered that hot stars and white dwarfs emit less ultraviolet radiation than expected.

Globular cluster

• A globular cluster is a spherical grouping of stars.
• Globular clusters are gravitationally bound together, with a higher concentration of stars near their centers.
• They can have tens of thousands to many millions of stars as members.
• They mostly orbit in the extended stellar halos that surround most spiral galaxies.

How are they formed?

• Nobody knows how globular clusters formed. Or what, if any, role they played in the formation of galaxies.
• We know that globular clusters are the most ancient, largest, and most massive type of star cluster. The oldest stars are found in globular clusters.
• Their age is determined by their nearly complete lack of metals, the heavier elements forged in star interiors.
• There are over 150 globular clusters in our Milky Way.
• The Milky Way contains over 150 globular clusters, with possibly more hidden by galactic dust.
• Our neighboring spiral galaxy, the Andromeda galaxy (M31), appears to have around 300 globular clusters.

Difference between a globular cluster and an open cluster

• Globular clusters are large, symmetric, and ancient. They have a diameter of 300 light-years and contain 10 million stars. Open star clusters, on the other hand, contain sibling stars scattered throughout the disc of our galaxy and possibly other galaxies.
• Globular star clusters have a symmetrical shape and are densest in the center. Open star clusters have an irregular shape and are loosely clustered together.
• Globular clusters orbit in our galaxy’s halo. Furthermore, focus on the galaxy’s core while expanding above and below the galactic disc. Open star clusters are more likely to orbit within the disc.
• Millions of stars are found in globular star clusters. However, some globular clusters, such as Omega Centauri, have millions of stars. Open star clusters are made up of hundreds of stars.

Source: https://www.britannica.com/science/globular-cluster

The year 2023 is expected to be another busy one. Here are five of the most thrilling missions to keep an eye out for.

(1) Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer

• In April, the European Space Agency (ESA) is set to launch the Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer (Juice), in what will be Europe’s first dedicated robotic mission to Jupiter.
• Juice is scheduled to arrive on the planet in July 2031 after an incredible journey through the Solar System.
• The mission will enter Jupiter’s orbit and fly by its three large icy moons, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto.
• After four years of moon flybys, Juice will enter orbit around Ganymede, the largest moon in the Solar System, becoming the first spacecraft to orbit another planet’s moon.
• Jupiter’s icy moons are fascinating because they are all thought to contain oceans of liquid water beneath their frozen surfaces.
• Europa, in particular, is regarded as one of the most likely locations for extraterrestrial life in the Solar System.

(2) SpaceX Starship

• The Starship will be the largest spacecraft capable of transporting humans from Earth to space destinations (the International Space Station is larger, but it was assembled in space).
• It will be the most powerful launch vehicle ever flown, capable of transporting 100 tonnes of cargo into low-Earth orbit.
• The Starship system consists of two components: the Starship spacecraft (which carries the crew and cargo) and the Super Heavy rocket.
• The rocket component will lift the Starship to a height of 65 kilometers before separating and landing safely on Earth.
• The upper Starship component will then use its own engines to propel itself to orbit.

(3) dearMoon Project

• The long-awaited dearMoon project, which will take members of the public on a six-day journey around the Moon and back, is set to launch on Starship in 2023.
• It will be the first launch of true deep space tourism.
• This mission will usher in a new era in the way we think about space, as previously only astronauts chosen using extremely stringent criteria were able to travel to deep space.
• The success or failure of the dearMoon mission could determine whether deep space tourism becomes the next big thing or remains a pipe dream.

(4) OSIRIS-REx returning Earth

• Security — The Origins Spectral Interpretation Resource Identification The Regolith Explorer mission, better known as OSIRIS-REx, is a NASA mission to the near-Earth asteroid Bennu.
• One of the primary objectives of this robotic mission was to collect samples of Bennu and return them to Earth for analysis.
• OSIRIS-REx is now on its way back to Earth, carrying up to a kilogram of valuable asteroid samples.
• If everything goes as planned, the capsule will detach from the spacecraft, enter the Earth’s atmosphere, and parachute to a soft landing in Utah’s deserts.
• Only once before has an asteroid sample been returned, by the Japanese Space Agency’s Hayabusa 2 mission in 2020.
• Bennu is a diamond-shaped world about half a kilometer in size, but it has many interesting features.
• Water has altered some of the minerals found within it, implying that Bennu’s ancient parent body contained liquid water.
• It is also rich in precious metals such as gold and platinum.
• It is, however, classified as a potentially hazardous object with a (very) small chance of colliding with Earth in the next century.

(5) India’s private space launch

• Skyroot Aerospace, which launched its Vikram-S rocket successfully in November 2022, will soon become the first private Indian company to launch a satellite.
• The rocket itself reached an altitude of 90 kilometers, a distance that would need to be increased in order to place a constellation of satellites into orbit.
• Skyroot’s first satellite launch is scheduled for 2023, with the goal of undercutting private space launch competitors’ costs by producing 3D-printed rockets in a matter of days.
• If successful, this could pave the way for cheaper launches of scientific missions, allowing for faster research.

@the end

With many daring advances and launches scheduled for 2023, we are entering a new era reminiscent of the “Golden Age” of space launches in the 1960s and 1970s.

Source: https://www.deccanherald.com/science-and-environment/five-space-exploration-missions-to-look-out-for-in-2023-1176127.html

Many of us are familiar with the term “chatbot” and what it is supposed to do. This year, however, OpenAI’s ChatGPT transformed a simple experience into something entirely new. ChatGPT is regarded as a game-changing example of an AI chatbot and what the technology is capable of when applied at scale.

What is Chatbot?

• A chatbot (derived from the term “chat robot”) is a computer program that simulates human conversation via voice or text communication and is intended to assist in problem-solving.
• Chatbots are used by businesses to engage with customers in addition to traditional customer service channels such as phone, email, and social media.

What is ChatGPT?

• Simple definition: ChatGPT is a chatbot built on a large-scale transformer-based language model that is trained on a diverse dataset of text and is capable of generating human-like responses to prompts.
• A model of human-like language: It is based on GPT-3.5, a deep learning-based language model that generates human-like text.
• Details make it more interesting: However, ChatGPT is more engaging than the older GPT-3 model, which only took text prompts and tried to continue with its own generated text. It produces much more detailed text and can even generate poems.
• Remembers conversations: Memory is another distinguishing feature. The bot can recall previous comments in a conversation and relay them to the user.
• Similarity to humans: A conversation with ChatGPT is similar to conversing with a smart computer that appears to have human-like intelligence.

Will AI replace all of our daily writing?

• ChatGPT is not entirely accurate: Even OpenAI admits that it is not entirely accurate. It is also clear that some of ChatGPT’s essays lack the depth that a real human expert might exhibit when writing on the same subject.
• ChatGPT lacks the depth of the human mind: it lacks the nuance that a human can often provide. For example, when asked on ChatGPT how to deal with a cancer diagnosis. The responses were courteous but generic. The kind of responses you’d find in any general self-help book.
• It lacks human-like experiences: AI has a long way to go. After all, it lacks the same experiences as humans.
• ChatGPT does not perform well in code: ChatGPT is currently writing basic code. As several reports have shown, ChatGPT isn’t quite there yet. However, a future in which basic code is written using AI does not appear to be so far-fetched right now.

Limitations of ChatGPT

• ChatGPT is still vulnerable to misinformation: Despite the bot’s capabilities, there are some limitations. ChatGPT is still susceptible to misinformation and biases, which plagued previous versions of GPT as well. The model may provide incorrect answers to algebraic problems, for example.
• ChatGPT can write incorrect answers: OpenAI understands some flaws and has noted them down on its announcement blog that “ChatGPT sometimes writes plausible-sounding but incorrect or nonsensical answers.

@the end

OpenAI’s ChatGPT transformed a simple experience into something entirely new. ChatGPT is a groundbreaking example of an AI chatbot and what the technology can accomplish when used at scale. Despite its limitations, ChatGPT is a fun little bot to interact with. However, some issues must be addressed before it becomes an unavoidable part of human life.

Source: https://www.forbes.com/sites/ariannajohnson/2022/12/07/heres-what-to-know-about-openais-chatgpt-what-its-disrupting-and-how-to-use-it/

South Korea reported its first case of infection from Naegleria fowleri or “brain-eating amoeba”.

Naegleria fowleri (Amoeba)

• Amoeba is a type of cell or unicellular organism that can change shape by extending and retracting pseudopods.
• Naegleria is a single-celled organism that is an amoeba, and only one of its species, Naegleria fowleri, can infect humans.
• It was discovered in 1965 in Australia and is commonly found in warm freshwater bodies such as hot springs, rivers, and lakes.
• Naegleria fowleri has been identified as the cause of PAM in over 16 countries, including India, and has been found on all continents.

How does it infect humans?

• The amoeba enters the human body through the nose and proceeds to the brain.
• This usually occurs when someone goes for a swim, dives, or even dips their head in a freshwater body.
• In some cases, people became infected after cleaning their nostrils with contaminated water, vapor, or aerosol droplets.
• When Naegleria fowleri enters the brain, it destroys brain tissues and causes primary amebic meningoencephalitis, a potentially fatal infection (PAM).

Symptoms of PAM

• According to the CDC, the first signs of PAM appear one to twelve days after infection.
• In the early stages, they may resemble meningitis symptoms such as headache, nausea, and fever.
• A stiff neck, seizures, hallucinations, and even coma can occur in the later stages.
• The infection spreads quickly and, on average, kills within five days.

How is its spread related to climate change?

• Because the amoeba thrives in warm freshwater bodies, the chances of contracting Naegleria fowleri infection will increase as global temperatures rise.
• The organism grows best at temperatures of up to 46°C and can sometimes survive at even higher temperatures.
• Several recent studies have discovered that high levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide have caused an increase in the temperature of lakes and rivers.
• These conditions are more conducive to the growth of the amoeba.

Source: https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/naegleria/general.html

The Defence Ministry has decided to station surface-to-surface ‘Pralay’ ballistic missiles developed in-house near India’s borders with China and Pakistan.

What exactly are Tactical Missiles?

• Short-range missiles are classified as tactical, while long-range missiles are classified as strategic.
• A tactical missile is one that is used to destroy tactical enemy targets such as bunkers, mortar positions, artillery positions, and so on.
• Battlefield missiles are tactical, whereas long-range missiles aimed at larger targets such as cities are strategic.

These missiles have the following characteristics:

• Tactical missiles have a range that is somewhere between long-range rockets and short-range ballistic missiles, with a typical range of 100 to 200 kilometers.
• Extreme precision and accuracy: These missiles are extremely precise and can destroy small, steady, and moving targets with pinpoint accuracy.

‘Pralay’ Missile

• Pralay is a Hindi word that means “apocalypse” or “great destruction” or “damage”.
• The Pralay missile project, which was approved in 2015, is a development of the Prahaar missile programme, which was first tested in 2011.
• The DRDO-developed ‘Pralay’ ballistic missile is a tactical, surface-to-surface, and short-range ballistic missile (SRBM) for battlefield use.
• It can hit targets from 150 to 500 kilometres away and is extremely difficult to intercept by enemy interceptor missiles.
• Pralay is a high explosive preformed fragmentation warhead that weighs between 350 and 700 kg and is powered by a solid fuel rocket motor.
• It also accounts for its PCB and RDP (Runaway Denial Penetration Submunitions) (RDPS).

Unique features

• Precise targeting: The missile is designed to destroy enemy radar, communication installations, command centers, and airfields.
• Quasi Ballistic Trajectory: When an object is shot, it follows a low curved path.
• Pralay has the ability to avoid anti-ballistic missile (ABM) interceptors by performing mid-air maneuvers with a maneuverable re-entry vehicle.
• Destruction capability: When a high-explosive warhead, such as the one carried by the Pralay missile, explodes, its pieces are thrown at high speeds, inflicting heavy damage.

What makes Pralay lethal?

• The Indian missile is similar to China’s Dong Feng 12 and Russia’s Iskander missile, both of which have been used in the ongoing conflict with Ukraine.
• The US Army is working to extend the range of a similar short-range ballistic missile known as the Precision Strike Missile (PrSM).
• Pralay is lethal because it is a quasi-ballistic weapon, which means that, while it has a low trajectory and is mostly ballistic, it can manoeuvre in flight.
• Short-range ballistic missiles, as opposed to intercontinental ballistic missiles, remain within the Earth’s atmosphere.

Way ahead

• Pralay, along with the BrahMos supersonic cruise missile, will form the crux of India’s planned Rocket Force — a concept that was envisaged by former Chief of Defence Staff (CDS), the late General Bipin Rawat.
• Only conventional missiles would come under the planned Rocket Force as and when it’s ready, while nuclear weapons would continue to be under the ambit of the Strategic Forces Command.

Source: https://m.economictimes.com/news/defence/india-clears-pralay-tactical-ballistic-missiles-for-armed-forces-to-be-deployed-along-china-border/articleshow/96500010.cms

Neuralink, Elon Musk’s medical company, has been accused of causing unnecessary suffering and death to approximately 1,500 animals in just a few years. According to sources, animal testing is moving too quickly, causing unnecessary suffering and death for the animals.

Neuralink company and its objective

• The 2016-founded company Neuralink is developing a brain implant that will allow paralyzed people to walk again and cure other neurological conditions.

What Is Neuralink?

• A brain implant: Neuralink is a device that will be surgically implanted into the brain using robotics. A chipset known as the link is implanted in the skull during this procedure.
• Insulated wires connected to electrodes: It has several insulated wires connected to the electrodes used in the process.
• This device can then be used to operate smartphones and computers without the need for human intervention.

The science behind the human brain

• Neurons in the Brain: Neurons in the brain transmit signals to cells throughout the body, including muscle, nerve, gland, and other neuron cells.
• Each part of the brain performs the following functions: Every neuron is composed of three components: the dendrite, the soma (cell body), and the axon. Each of these parts serves a specific purpose. The signals are received by the dendrite. These signals are processed by the soma. The signals are then transmitted to the other cells by the axon.
• Neurotransmitters: Neurons are linked together by synapses, which release neurotransmitters. These chemical substances are then sent to the dendrite of another neuron cell, causing current to flow across the neurons.

Working of  Neuralink

• Electrodes can read electrical signals: The electrodes in the Neuralink can read electrical signals produced by various neurons in the brain. The signals are then output as an action or movement.
• The device is implanted directly in the brain, according to the company’s website, because placing it outside the head will not accurately detect the signals produced by the brain.

What Does Neuralink Do?

• In order to operate encephalopathy, Neuralink can be used.
• People who are paralyzed can be operated on; it can also serve as a link between the human brain and technology. This means that people who are paralyzed can use their brains to handle their phones and computers.
• It will assist people in communicating: Its primary purpose is to assist people in communicating via text or voice messages.
• Neuralink has a wide range of applications, including the ability to draw pictures, take photographs, and perform other tasks.

@the end

Despite the fact that the Neuralink innovation is pushing the boundaries of neural engineering, animal cruelty cannot be ignored.

Source: https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2022/12/06/elon-musk-neuralink-animal-creulty/

Many dignitaries have signed an open letter published by the Outer Space Institute (OSI) urging national and multilateral efforts to limit uncontrolled re-entry of satellites back to Earth.

Open Space Institute (OSI)

• OSI is a conservation organisation dedicated to preserving scenic, natural, and historic landscapes for public enjoyment, conserving habitats while preserving community character, and assisting in environmental protection.
• It achieves its objectives through policy initiatives and grassroots activism.

Stages of a rocket launch

• Rockets have several stages.
• The rocket sheds a stage after it has increased the rocket’s altitude and velocity by a certain amount.
• Some rockets burn up all of their larger stages before reaching their final orbit; a smaller engine then propels the payload to its final orbit.
• Others carry the payload into orbit, then begin their descent with a deorbit manoeuvre.
• Rocket stages fall back down in both cases, either controlled or uncontrolled.

Uncontrolled re-entry

• It is the phenomenon of unguided rocket parts falling back to earth after their missions are completed.
• The rocket stage falls in an uncontrolled re-entry.
• Its descent path is determined by its shape, angle of descent, air currents, and other factors.
• As it falls, it will also disintegrate.

Number of satellites in space

• In 1957, the Soviet Union launched the first artificial satellite.
• Today, there are over 6,000 satellites in orbit, the majority of which are in low-Earth (100-2,000 km) and geostationary (35,786 km) orbits and were launched in over 5,000 launches.
• With the introduction of reusable rocket stages, the number of rocket launches has increased dramatically.

Why is this hazardous?

• The potential radius of impact on the ground increases as the smaller pieces fan out.
• Some pieces completely burn, while others do not.
• However, due to the speed at which they travel, debris can be lethal.
• If re-entering stages still contain fuel, another risk is chemical contamination in the atmosphere and on the ground.

Uncontrolled re-entry damage control mechanism

• There is no international binding agreement to ensure rocket stages always perform controlled re-entries, nor is there one on the technologies to do so.
• The 1972 Liability Convention requires countries to pay for damages rather than prevent them.
• Wing-like attachments, de-orbiting brakes, extra fuel on the re-entering body, and design changes that reduce debris formation are among the technologies used.

Source: https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/explained-the-uncontrolled-re-entries-of-satellites/article66292610.ece

A global moratorium on destructive kinetic anti-satellite (ASAT) tests is gaining traction. The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) recently passed a resolution calling for a ban on kinetic ASAT tests.

The resolution

• Sponsored by the United States: The resolution was sponsored by the United States, as well as a number of other countries concerned about the effects of ASAT tests on the safety and sustainability of outer space.
• The majority voted in favour: 155 countries voted in favour of the resolution, nine voted against it, and nine abstained.
• Belarus, Bolivia, Central African Republic, China, Cuba, Iran, Nicaragua, Russia, and Syria voted against the resolution.
• India, Laos, Madagascar, Pakistan, Serbia, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Togo, and Zimbabwe were the nine countries that abstained.

Provisions of the resolution over the ban of ASAT

• No binding effect, but urges to avoid an arms race in space: The ASAT test-ban resolution has no binding effect on states; it simply calls on states to stop conducting ASAT tests and to develop additional practical steps and contribute to legally binding instruments to prevent an arms race in outer space.
• Other space-related resolutions were also approved: Along with the ASAT test-ban resolution, which was passed on December 7, there were several other space and nuclear-related resolutions, such as No First Use of Weapons in Outer Space (NFP).
• Support for reducing space risks: The resolution continues to support broader efforts to develop “further practical steps” to reduce space risks.

ASAT

ASATs (Anti-Satellite Weapons): According to a UN Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR) document, ASATs (Anti-Satellite Weapons) are designed to destroy or disable space assets, whether military or civilian, offensive or defensive.

Two types: kinetic and non-kinetic.

• Kinetic ASATs require a physical strike to destroy an object. Ballistic missiles, drones, or any item launched to coincide with the passage of a target satellite are examples of kinetic ASATs. This means that any space asset, including communications satellites, could be classified as an ASAT if used to physically destroy another space object.
• ASATs that are not kinetic: A variety of nonphysical means can be used to disable or destroy a space object. Frequency jamming, blinding lasers, and cyberattacks are examples of these. These methods can also render an object useless without causing it to break up and fragment in the absence of additional forces.

Why ASAT tests are to be banned?

• Threat to peaceful use of outer space: ASAT tests pose a direct threat to the peaceful use of outer space, on which everyone in the global community relies.
• Satellite safety is jeopardised: In recent years, there has been an increase in activities that endanger satellite safety and functionality. The Russian ASAT test on November 15, 2021, which destroyed the Cosmos 1408 satellite, is an example.
• Space debris could endanger the International Space Station: The test produced approximately 1,800 pieces of tracked space debris and possibly many more pieces that are difficult to track, posing a risk to astronauts aboard the International Space Station.
• Rare, high-tech, and dangerous to test: ASAT is an anti-satellite weapon that can blind or disrupt enemy satellite communications while also providing a technological foundation for intercepting ballistic missiles.

Way Forward

• Other UN initiatives, such as the Open-Ended Working Group (OEWG), are underway to reduce space threats through norms, rules, and principles of responsible behaviour.
• These, like the ASAT test ban, are required to move the space security agenda forward.
• States must take small preventative measures, whether legal or normative, before space becomes completely a warfighting domain.

@the-end

Given the deterioration of space security conditions, with more countries developing ASATs and other counterspace capabilities, it is time for more countries to join the current initiative to halt further ASAT tests. Unless countries make a conscious decision to work together to reverse current trends in space weaponization, continued access to outer space is not guaranteed.

Source—https://www.orfonline.org/research/why-an-asat-test-ban-is-important/